Soapberry - Shepherdia canadensis

• Family: Elaeagnaceae (Oleaster family) ^[E-flora]
• Other Names: Soopolallie (Canadian buffalo-berry; russet buffaloberry) ^[E-flora]

Identification
"Shepherdia canadensis is a deciduous Shrub growing to 2.5 m (8ft 2in) at a medium rate.
It is hardy to zone (UK) 2 and is not frost tender. It is in flower in April, and the seeds ripen from Jul to September. The flowers are dioecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but only one sex is to be found on any one plant so both male and female plants must be grown if seed is required)The plant is not self-fertile.
It can fix Nitrogen." ^[PFAF]
"Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought. The plant can tolerate maritime exposure."^[PFAF]

• Synonyms
  
  • Elaeagnus canadensis (L.) A. Nels ^{[E-flora][PFAF]}
  • Hippophae canadensis. ^[PFAF]
  • Lepargyrea canadensis (L.) Greene ^{[E-flora][PFAF]}

Status: native.^[E-flora]
General: "Deciduous shrub; stems erect to spreading, young stems brownish-scaled, older branches brownish and scaly, 1-2 m tall." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Leaves: "Opposite, entire, elliptic to narrowly egg-shaped, 1.5-6 cm long, 1-3 cm wide, greenish on the upper surface, white-scaly and brownish-scaly beneath." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]} "The leaves are opposite, and the lower surfaces of the blades not only have brownish scales but also some whitish scurfiness." ^{[Kozloff PWO]}
Flowers: "Inflorescence of 1 to several inconspicuous axillary flowers clustered on short branches; male and female flowers on separate plants, the male flowers brownish; petals lacking; sepals spreading to reflexed, 4-lobed, the lobes 1-2 mm long; stamens 8." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Fruits: "Berries, bright red, oval, 6-8 mm long, fleshy, bitter, soapy to touch when crushed." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
USDA Flower Colour: Yellow
USDA Blooming Period: Late Spring
USDA Fruit/Seed characteristics:

Colour: Yellow

Present from Summer to Fall ^{[USDA-E-flora]}

Habitat / Range "Mesic to dry sites in the lowland and steppe to subalpine zones; common throughout BC except absent on the Queen Charlotte Islands, N Vancouver Island and adjacent N coast; N to AK, YT and NT, E to NF and S to OH, MN, SD, NM and OR." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
"Soapberries are sporadic in their distribution. They are more common and productive in the Interior than on the Coast, and they do not grow at all in some places, such as the Queen Charlotte Islands. Crops vary from year to year and place to place, and different populations of the fruit are better flavored than others." ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} "This shrub has a wide distribution east of the Cascades, but it is also found in the southern portion of Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands of British Columbia and on the San Juan Islands of Washington." ^{[Kozloff PWO]}

"In western North America, soapberry is widespread throughout much of the Interior, but it grows only sporadically and in restricted populations along the coast. It apparently does not occur on Haida Gwaii or in other wetter regions such as the Olympic Peninsula or the west coast of Vancouver Island (Walkup 1991; Klinkenberg 2006)." ^{[Turner&Burton]}

Ecological Indicator Information
"A shade-tolerant/intolerant, sub montane to subalpine, transcontinental North American deciduous shrub (sporadic in the Pacific region). Occurs predominantly in continental boreal and cool temperate climates on very dry to moderately dry, nitrogen-medium soils; its occurrence increases with increasing continentality. Common in semi-open forests on water-shedding sites; scattered on the leeward side of Vancouver Island; plentiful in the coast-interior ecotone. Often associated with Calamagrostis rubescens, Linnaea borealis, and Paxistima myrslnites. Symbiotic with nitrogen-fixing organisms. Characteristic of continental forests." (IPBC)^[E-flora]

Hazards

• Saponins: "The fruit contains low concentrations of saponins[101]. Although toxic, these substances are very poorly absorbed by the body and so tend to pass through without causing harm. They are also broken down by thorough cooking. Saponins are found in many plants, including several that are often used for food, such as certain beans. It is advisable not to eat large quantities of food that contain saponins. Saponins are much more toxic to some creatures, such as fish, and hunting tribes have traditionally put large quantities of them in streams, lakes etc in order to stupefy or kill the fish[K]."^[PFAF] "It has a distinctive bitter flavour due to the presence of low levels (ca 0.74%) of saponins, organic compounds which are natural detergents that give soapberry its characteristic foaming qualities (Small and Catling 2001). Many Indigenous peoples living within the range of soapberry do not eat it at all; some use it as a famine food or casual snack, and some consider it to be poisonous." ^{[Turner&Burton]}

Edible Uses

• Berries: "Raw or cooked[2, 3, 22, 46, 85, 101]. The fruit can also be dried and used like currants. A tart but pleasant flavour even before a frost, it becomes sweeter after frosts[62]. Another report says that the fruit is bitter and is dried, smoked or pressed into cakes[183]. The fruit was a favourite treat of the North American Indians, they would beat it in an equal quantity of water until a foam with a consistency of beaten eggs was formed.... The foam would then be flavoured with a sweet food such as cooked quamash bulbs or other fruits and then served as a special treat in feasts etc. The taste is bitter sweet and is not always enjoyed the first time it is eaten, though it normally grows on one. Nowadays sugar is used to sweeten it and the confection is called 'Indian ice cream'[183, 256]. The fruit should be used in moderation due to the saponin content[101]." ^[PFAF] "Berries were boiled, and sometimes mixed with a little sugar before or after cooking. Eaten with cooked moose liver or with animal fat. The Blackfoot also ate the berries, in "lean times"." ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} "The berries were also dried for winter use. (Suttles, 1951)." ^{[Turner&Bell]} "I have tried its orange berries and found them sweetish but insipid." ^[EWP] "Many people agree that the berries vary in degree of bitterness." ^{[Turner&Burton]} "...also used to make a lemonade-like beverage." ^[ETWP]
  • Harvesting: "Generally ripen in early july to early august. Extremely bitter.... The berries fall off the bushes easily when ripe. The usual method of gathering them was to place a container or mat under a berry-laden branch, and then, holding the branch at the end, whack it sharply with a stick, dislodging all the ripe berries. With this method, large quantities can be gathered in a short time." ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}
  • Preparation: "Care must be taken in picking and preparing soapberries so they do not come in contact with oil or grease of any kind, or they will not whip." "The whip, some maintain, has to be swished in and out of the mouth to get the air out of it before being swallowed. Soapberries and soapberry whip were considered healthful foods. The whip was said to be good for settling the stomach after eating rich foods." ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}
    • Cakes: "Fruits were pressed into cakes, which were smoked and eaten, the taste sweet at first then replaced by a bitter taste (saponin) like quinine."^{[Viereck ATS]}
    • Indian ice-cream: "People developed a special confection, often called "Indian ice-cream," by whipping the berries with water and, in recent times, with sugar into a light froth. "Indian ice-cream" is still served in many households, especially at parties and family gatherings.... Formerly, the whip was sweetened with other berries such as saskatoons and salal." ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}
      • "The berries were picked in July or August, crushed in water, and beaten with bundles of grass or maple leaves into a salmon-coloured froth. Often fresh berries, camas, or, in recent times, sugar, were added to sweeten it, as the berries are quite acid (Anderson, 1925; Suttles, 1951). This dessert was usually eaten with a special type of flat wooden spoon (Davis, 1949). It is still eaten today by some groups, such as the Nanaimo (Paul, 1968)." ^{[Turner&Bell]}
      • Whisk: "The Nlaka'pamux, Chilcotin and other Interior peoples sometimes used bundles of bluebunch wheat grass or "timbergrass" (Calamagrostis rubescens) as whippers for soapberries (Shepherdia canadensis)" ^{[Turner&Kuhnlein]}
  • Properties: Extremely bitter when ripe. ^{[Turner&Kuhnlein]} "These have been variously described as being at once sweet, bitter, acidic and aromatic. The Indians are reported to have used them extensively, either fresh or dried. The berries contain a rather high percentage of "saponin" (Havard, 115, said 0.74 %), this substance not only gives them the bitter taste but also allows them to be whipped like thick cream into a frothy mass that was used as a kind of dessert. Perhaps one can acquire a liking for their bitter taste, but we have often tried these bitter buffaloberries both raw and cooked, and cannot recommend them very highly. The best we can say is that we have never become actually ill from eating small quantities of them." ^[Harrington] "Virtually everyone agrees, however, that soapberries are an acquired taste, which few really appreciate the first time they try them." ^{[Turner&Burton]} "We found the berries to be somewhat unattractive for general use but a valuable consideration in emergencies." ^{[Vizgirdas WPSN]}

Other Uses

• Saponins: "Because of its saponin content, the fruit is a potential soap substitute. It is macerated in water to extract the saponins[172]." ^[PFAF] "The berries can be crushed and made into a tea for use as a liquid soap." ^{[Vizgirdas WPSN]}
• Hair Tonic: "A decoction of the branches has been used as a hair tonic for dyeing and curling the hair[257]. The branches were harvested in mid summer, broken up and boiled for 2 - 3 hours in water, until the liquid looked like brown coffee. The liquid was decanted off and bottled without further treatment - it would store for a long time without deterioration. To use, the decoction was rubbed into the hair which was simultaneously curled and dyed a brownish colour[257]." ^[PFAF]
• Insecticide: "The berries, the froth made from them, or a jelly of the fruit, have been eaten as an insect repellent[257]. It was said that mosquitoes were far less likely to bite a person who had eaten the fruit[257]." ^[PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

"Buffalo berry was commonly employed medicinally by several native North American Indian tribes, who used it in the treatment of a range of complaints[257]. It is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism." ^[PFAF]

• Indications: Unspecified part used to treat diabetes. ^{[Ramzen PESR]}
  • Constipation: "Native Americans used the tea to relieve constipation." ^{[Vizgirdas WPSN]}
  • Eye Troubles: "Hart (1996) indicates that the Flathead and Kootenai Indians made solutions from the bark of bu√aloberry for eye troubles." ^{[Vizgirdas WPSN]}
• Stems & Leaves: "A decoction has been used as a wash in the treatment of sores[257] , cuts and swellings[257] ^[PFAF] "Infusions of the stems and leaves were drunk as a tonic beverage." ^{[Vizgirdas WPSN]}
• Bark: "A poultice of the bark, softened by hot water and mixed with pin cherry bark (Prunus pensylvanica), has been used to make a plaster or bandage for wrapping broken limbs[257]. An infusion of the bark has been used as a wash for sore eyes[257]. The inner bark is laxative[257]. An infusion has been used in the treatment of constipation[257]." ^[PFAF]
• Roots: "Antihaemorrhagic and cathartic[257]. An infusion of the roots has been used as an aid to childbirth and in the treatment of tuberculosis and the coughing up of blood[257]". ^PFAF] Root boiled in water and the decoction taken internally as a purgative. ^{[Smith(1927)]}
• Stems: "A decoction of the stems has been used as a stomach tonic (it was also used to treat stomach cancer) and also in the treatment of constipation, high blood pressure and venereal disease[257]." ^[PFAF]
• Plant:
  • External Use: "A decoction of the plant has been used externally as a wash and rub for aching limbs, arthritic joints, head and face sores[257]" ^[PFAF]
  • Roots, stem, and branches boiled, and the decoction used as a wash for gonorrhoea. ^{[Smith(1927)]}
  • Bark, branches, and leaves without roots boiled, and the decoction taken internally for chronic cough.^{[Smith(1927)]}
• Berries: "Eaten as a treatment for high blood pressure[257]. The fruit juice has been drunk in the treatment of digestive disorders[257]." ^[PFAF]
  • External Use: "It has also been applied externally in the treatment of acne and boils[257]." ^[PFAF] "berries or whip [used] to treat mosquito bites" ^{[Turner&Burton]}

Further Ethnobotanical Info

Nlaka’pmx and Okanagan hunters have used the branches to make a cathartic drink to prepare themselves for hunting and to bring good luck by internal cleansing; sometimes this purification was done in the sweat-lodge. They also used this solution to wash their hunting gear for luck and to ensure that the game will not be repelled by its scent (Teit 1909; Turner et al. 1980, 1990). ^{[Turner&Burton]}

"...tend to be more common and productive in the Interior than on the Coast in northwestern North America". ^{[Turner&Burton]}

"Even when soapberries are available locally, they might vary in abundance from year to year, and people often had to travel to specific sites to harvest them." ^{[Turner&Burton]}

Phytochemicals

• Harmala Alkaloids
• Shepherdia canadensis Nuttall [Tetrahydroharman] ^{[Otto 1994]} "Shepherdia canadensis also yielded tetrahydroharmol as well as serotonine and a new base, shepherdine, isomeric with tetrahydroharmol" ^{[TheAlkChem&PhysV14]}
• 6-Hydroxytryptamin (Shepherdia sp.) ^{[TheAlkChem&PharmV26]}
• "Tetrahydroharmol (3)was isolated from Shepherdia argentea. Tetrahydroharmol (3), serotonin (12), and a new alkaloid shepherdine (2a)were isolated from Shepherdia canadensis; and evidence was obtained for the presence of 6-hydroxytryptamine in S . canadensis." ^{[Ayer&Browne,1970]}
• "The two major carotenoids in Shepherdia canadensis were⁴⁵ lycopene (16) and methyl apo-6’-lycopenoate (21)." ^{[Overton TS1]}

Nutritional

• 100g of raw berries contain 80kcal, 81g water, 0.7g fat, 1.8g protein, 5.3g crude fiber, 16.6g total carbohydrate, 165mg vitamin C, 0.01mg thiamine, 0.1mg riboflavin, 0.2mg Niacin, 21mg Phosphorus, 8mg Magnesium, 16mg calcium, 0.5mg Sodium, 0.5mg Iron, and 1.4mg Zinc. ^{[Dilbone2013]}

Cultivation

"Succeeds in an ordinary well-drained moisture retentive soil[1, 3, 11]. Tolerates poor dry soils[200] and maritime exposure[182]. Established plants are drought resistant[182]. Plants can accumulate mercury when they are grown in polluted soils[172]. Rarely produces fruits in Britain[182]. Some named varieties have been developed for their ornamental value[200]. 'Xanthocarpa' has yellow fruits, 'Rubra' has red fruits[200]. Plants in this genus are notably resistant to honey fungus[200]. This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil bacteria, these bacteria form nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also be used by other plants growing nearby[200]. Dioecious. Male and female plants must be grown if fruit and seed is required." ^[PFAF]

"People in some areas learned how to enhance soapberry growth and productivity, as they did for other types of berries and various root vegetables (Peacock and Turner 2000; Turner and Peacock 2005). Sometimes soapberries and other berries were harvested by breaking off branches from the bushes and shaking or picking off the berries (Compton 1993; Elsie Claxton p.c.to NT 1997; Nellie Taylor and Ron Ignace, p.c.1993). This was a form of pruning, which people maintained made the bushes more productive in the following years, and allowed elders and others unable to walk in rough terrain to participate in the harvest. Burning over berry patches, including soapberry patches, was also practiced periodically in many areas and was said to promote growth and productivity and reduce insect and other pests (Turner 1999). Soapberries sprout up readily after a burn (Robert Gray, p.c.to NT 2006)." ^{[Turner&Burton]}

"Soapberry roots associate with nitrogen-fixing actinomycetes, and hence soapberry has the capacity to help fertilize and renew soils. It is drought tolerant and is a common understory species of dry open pine, spruce, fir and aspen woods, also growing on rocky ground and sandy and gravelly shorelines. It grows well in serpentine and limestone soils, but not in waterlogged or saline soils. It is dominant, along with willow (Salix spp.), in the second stage of succession on glacial moraines. It sprouts readily after a fire, and spreads well vegetatively from roots and layered branches (Pojar and MacKinnon 1994)." ^{[Turner&Burton]} "A typical example, Shepherdia [genera], is documented.... In this case nodulation increased the dry weight almost four fold and the N content more than seven fold. In a variety of nodulating plants the N content of nodulated plants is invariably much greater than that of uninoculated controls." ^{[Postgate CBNF]}

Propagation

"Seed - it must not be allowed to dry out[113]. It is best harvested in the autumn and sown immediately in a cold frame. Stored seed requires 2 - 3 months cold stratification[113]. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots once they are large enough to handle. If sufficient growth is made it will be possible to plant them out in the summer, otherwise grow them on in a cold frame for their first winter and plant them out in the following spring or early summer. Cuttings of half-ripe wood, July/August in a frame sometimes work[113]." ^[PFAF]

"Keep the cleaned seed dry. Germination of russet buffaloberry seed is increased by scarification with sulfuric acid, cold stratification for 60 days and diurnally alternating temperatures of 20^oC and 30^oC. Cover the seed with 0.6 cm of soil and 1.3-2.5 cm of straw mulch. Outplanting can be done with two-year-old stock (Thilenius et al. 1974)." ^[PPNWNP]

"Vegetative: Propagation of russet buffaloberry is best from cuttings. Stick root cuttings in February or March in ordinary soil outdoors (Kruckeberg 1982). Layering of shoots can be done in autumn (Hellyer 1972)." ^[PPNWNP]

Shepherdia Sp.

• "...represented by only three species native to Canada." ^{[Turner&Burton]}
• Shepherdia spp.
  • Windbreak: Suitable as a windbreak shrub. ^{[Osman SDCR]}
  • Fruit: "Astringent until fully ripe, then very nice raw, excellent in jams and fruit leathers." ^{[Crawford FFFG]}
  • Poultry Feed (fruit and possibly greens) ^{[Hemenway GG]}
  • "Shepherdia species have given... 6-hydroxytryptamine, 7-hydroxy-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-P-carboline and 7-acetoxy-2-acet yl-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-P-carboline. ^{[AlkaloidsV2]}
• ''Shepherdia argentea:
  • Introduction: "Western plains of the United States. This plant is somewhat cultivated for ornament. Catlin speaks of it in its native region as producing its fruit in incredible quantities, hanging in clusters to every limb and to every twig, about the size of ordinary currants and not unlike them in color and even in flavor" ^{[Sturtevant EPW]} "...produced in great profusion in the region of the upper Missouri, is largely used as an article of food. According to Henry Trimble, it contains a little more acid than currants." ^{[Remington USD20]}
  • Fruit: "This wild fruit is now being cultivated in the cold Northwest, and we may expect it to improve. In the wild state it is very prolific, the branches being thickly studded with fruits which remain on the bushes well into the winter.... The fruit which it produces in such incredible profusion, hanging in clusters to every twig, is about the size of ordinary currants, and not unlike them in color and even in flavor; being exceedingly acid and almost unpalatable, until they are bitten by the frosts of autumn, when they are sweetened, and their flavor delicious ; having to the taste much the character of grapes..."^[EWP]
  • Medicinal Uses: "Ceremonial medicine, febrifuge, gastrointestinal aid, laxative and unspecified" ^{[Heaton,2004]}
  • Activities: The "leaf extract exhibited inhibitory activity against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 reverse transcriptase" ^{[Heaton,2004]} "...results indicate that compounds from S. argentea can moderately provide protection from diabetic microvascular complications and can also reduce inflammation. Furthermore, compounds from this species have the potential to counter the symptoms of metabolic syndrome via improving glucose uptake and energy expenditure." ^{[Kraft et al.,2008]} "...two new HTs, shephagenins A and B, isolated from Shepherdia argentea, showed remarkable inhibitory activity against HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. The inhibitory effect of the leaf extract on HIV-1 was found to be due to its tannin content, and their activity was stronger than that of (2)-EGCG as a positive control [115]." ^{[Kuete MPRA]}
  • Phytochemicals: "Acetylation of a mixture of the bases... gave acetylpyrrolidine, N-acetyl-p-anisidine, and a crystalline compound which proved to be 0,N-diacetyltetrahydroharmol...(mp 202"). The alkaloid itself was isolated from the crude base mixture and shown to be harmol... (mp 254")." ^{[TheAlkChem&PhysV14]} Contains TETRAHYDROHARMOL ^[Glasby1975] "Shephagenin, strictinin (tannin)" ^[ModPhyt] "The berries contain B-carotene, vitamin C, leucoanthocyanins, catechols, and flavonols (25, 26)." ^{[Kraft et al.,2008]}
  • Shephagenin A (hydrolysable tannin) ^{[Polya BTPBC]}
  • Shephagenin B (hydrolysable tannin) ^{[Polya BTPBC]}
    • "Shepherdia argentea was extracted with methanol and the crude bases isolated in the usual way; i.e., by acid-base extraction. The crude bases were acetylated, then separated by elution chromatography on deactivated alumina. Two major fractions were obtained: a mixture of non-polar acetylated bases (shown to be simple amines, N-acetylpyrrolidine and N-acetyl-panisidine were positively identified) and a crystalline compound (A)." "...Compound A...itself was isolated from the crude basic extract of Shepllerdia argentea... It melts at 254.5^o and the u.v. and i.r. spectra correspond closely to those reported (4) for tetrahydroharmol (3).... Since this compound appears not to have been reported previously, we suggest the trivial name shepherdine for the unacetylated base." ^{[Ayer&Browne,1970]}

References

• AlkaloidsV2 - The Alkaloids Volume 2
• Ayer&Browne,1970 - Alkaloids of Shepherdiaargentea and Shepherdiacanadensis, W. A. Ayer, L. M. Browne, Canadian Journal of Chemistry, 1970, 48 (13), 1980-1984, 10.1139/v70-328
• Dilbone2013 - Megan Dilbone , Nancy J. Turner & Patrick von Aderkas (2013) Lodgepole Pine Cambium (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud. var. latifolia Engelm. ex S. Wats.): A Springtime First Peoples’ Food in British Columbia, Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 52:2, 130-147, DOI: 10.1080/03670244.2012.706013
• [E-flora] Shepherdia canadensis - http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Shepherdia canadensis&redblue=Both&lifeform=4 [Accessed: 1/17/2015]
• Glasby1975 - J. S. Glasby, Encyclopedia of the Alkaloids, Plenum Press . New York and London 1975
• Heaton,2004 - An Ethnobotanical and Medical Research Literature Update on the Plant Species Collected in the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1803-1806, Darrall Heaton and Ara DerMarderosian, Philadelphia Botanical Club, Bartonia, No. 62, Lewis and Clark Bicentennial: 1803-1806 — 2003-2006 (2004), pp. 63-93, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41610108
• Kraft et al.,2008 - Phytochemical Composition and Metabolic Performance-Enhancing Activity of Dietary Berries Traditionally Used by Native North Americans, TRISTAN F. BURNS KRAFT, MOUL DEY, RANDY B. ROGERS, DAVID M. RIBNICKY, DAVID M. GIPP, WILLIAM T. CEFALU,ILYA RASKIN, AND MARY ANN LILA, J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 654–660
• Kuete MPRA
  • [115] Yoshida T, Ito H, Hatano T, Kurata M, Nakanishi T, Inada A, et al. New hydrolyzable tannins, shephagenins A and B, from Shepherdia argentea as HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Chem Pharm Bull 1996;44:1436-9.
• [PFAF] Shepherdia canadensis - http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Shepherdia+canadensis, Accessed Jan 17, 2015
• TheAlkChem&PharmV26 - The Alkaloids Chemistry and Pharmacology Volume 26
• TheAlkChem&PhysV14 - The Alkaloids Chemistry and Physiology Volume 14
• Turner&Burton - Soapberry: Unique Northwestern Foaming Fruit, Nancy J. Turner and Carla M. Burton